The motor vehicle Manual by Tk GarretThe motor vehicle Manual by Tk Garret
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The motor vehicle Manual by Tk Garret – PDF DOWNLOAD
Because of the continuing phenomenally rapid rate of progress in automotive technology, the revision for this the thirteenth edition of The Motor Vehicle has been on a major scale.
No fewer than seven new chapters have been created. Of these, three are entirely new, while the remaining four comprise mainly new material that could not have been accommodated in existing chapters without making them too long and cumbersome.
Of the entirely new chapters, one is on electric propulsion which, owing to pressure of legislation is now beginning to be taken seriously by the industry. It covers all the alternatives, from conventional lead-acid, and other, battery-powered vehicles to fuel cells and hybrid power units.
A second covers both static and dynamic safety which, again because of pressure of legislation, is a field in which enormous progress has been made. This progress, which embraces almost all aspects of automotive design, has become possible largely because of the development of computer aided control. The third of these entirely new chapters deals with wheels and tyres.
Over the past few decades, wheels and especially tyres have moved on, from being simply components that the designer chose largely on the basis of dimensional and commercial considerations, to becoming an integral part of the tuned suspension system. In the twelfth edition, only one chapter was devoted to the compression ignition engine.
Now, owing to a major extent to the widespread application of diesel power to cars and light commercial vehicles, so much new equipment has been developed that it has now been expanded into three chapters.
One of these comprises mainly the original subject matter, while the other two contain a considerable amount of new information on aspects such as common rail injection, recently developed distributor type pumps, and electronic control of injection. Two chapters now cover automatic, semi-automatic and continuously variable transmissions.
These contain some of the original material but also information on the Porsche Tiptronic and Alfa Romeo Selespeed semi-automatic transmissions, the latter being basically the Magneti Marelli system. Chapter 39 has been added to contain much of the original material on anti-lock brakes together with new information on some of the latest developments for improving stability by means of computer aided control over both braking and traction.
In the next chapter, a significant amount of space is devoted to both the basic considerations and the practice of electrically actuated powerassisted steering, which now looks set ultimately to render hydraulic power assistance systems redundant.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
The motor vehicle Manual by Tk Garret – PDF DOWNLOAD
Contents............................................................................... 4
Units and abbreviations................................................................ 8
Part 1 The Engine...................................................................... 10
1 General principles of heat engines............................................... 12
1.1 Heat and work.............................................................. 12
1.2 Work....................................................................... 13
1.3 Joule's equivalent......................................................... 13
1.4 Thermal efficiency......................................................... 13
1.5 Calorific value............................................................ 13
1.6 Power...................................................................... 14
1.7 General method of conversion of heat to work............................... 14
1.8 Practical form of working vessel........................................... 15
1.9 Rotary and reciprocating engines........................................... 15
1.10 Cylinder, piston, connecting rod and crankshaft........................... 16
1.11 Method of working......................................................... 17
1.12 The four-stroke cycle..................................................... 17
1.13 Heat balance.............................................................. 19
1.14 Factors governing the mean effective pressure............................. 21
1.15 Work per minute, power and horsepower..................................... 22
1.16 Piston speed and the RAC rating........................................... 23
1.17 Indicated and brake power................................................. 23
1.18 Mechanical efficiency..................................................... 24
1.19 Limiting factors.......................................................... 24
1.20 Characteristic speed power curves......................................... 25
1.21 Torque curve.............................................................. 27
1.22 Effect of supercharging on bmep and power................................. 28
1.23 Brake specific fuel consumption........................................... 30
1.24 Commercial rating......................................................... 32
1.25 Number and diameter of cylinders.......................................... 32
1.26 Power per litre........................................................... 32
1.27 Considerations of balance and uniformity of torque........................ 33
2 Engine balance................................................................... 34
2.1 Practical balancing........................................................ 35
2.2 Balance of reciprocating parts............................................. 36
2.3 Other V twin engines....................................................... 38
2.4 Horizontally-opposed twin.................................................. 38
2.5 Side-by-side twin with cranks at 180....................................... 38
2.6 Four-cylinder in-line engine............................................... 39
2.7 General method of balancing................................................ 39
2.8 Couples due to revolving masses............................................ 40
2.9 Balanced throws............................................................ 40
2.10 Torsional vibration....................................................... 40
2.11 Secondary forces and couples.............................................. 40
2.12 Effect of short connecting rod............................................ 41
2.13 Firing intervals.......................................................... 43
2.14 Compactness of engine..................................................... 43
2.15 Harmonic balancer......................................................... 43
2.16 Torsional disturbances.................................................... 44
2.17 In-line engines with three cylinders...................................... 45
2.18 Engines with five cylinders............................................... 46
2.19 Flexible mountings........................................................ 46
2.20 Modes of vibration, natural frequency, forcing frequency and resonance.... 47
2.21 Principal axes of inertia................................................. 48
2.22 Importance in the design of engine mountings.............................. 48
2.23 Hydraulically damped engine mountings..................................... 51
2.24 The Avon Hydramount....................................................... 54
3 Constructional details of the engine............................................. 56
3.1 General engine parts....................................................... 56
3.2 The piston................................................................. 56
3.3 Thermal considerations..................................................... 57
3.4 Design details............................................................. 57
3.5 Slipper and articulated pistons............................................ 61
3.6 AEconoglide piston......................................................... 61
3.7 Combustion chamber in piston............................................... 62
3.8 Piston rings............................................................... 64
3.9 Ring sections.............................................................. 64
3.10 Oil control rings......................................................... 65
3.11 Ring belt design.......................................................... 67
3.12 Cylinder bore wear and corrosion.......................................... 68
3.13 Gudgeon pin............................................................... 69
3.14 Connecting rods........................................................... 69
3.15 Typical connecting rods................................................... 70
3.16 Bearing bushes............................................................ 72
3.17 Bearing materials......................................................... 72
3.18 Thin-wall bearings........................................................ 72
3.19 Stronger materials........................................................ 74
3.20 Corrosion of bearings..................................................... 74
3.21 Aluminium-tin bearing alloys.............................................. 74
3.22 Aluminium-silicon and aluminium-tin-silicon alloys........................ 75
3.23 The crankshaft............................................................ 75
3.24 Crankshaft materials...................................................... 76
3.25 Built-up crankshafts...................................................... 79
3.26 Surface-hardening of shafts............................................... 80
3.27 Chill casting............................................................. 81
3.28 High-frequency induction hardening: flame hardening....................... 81
3.29 The poppet valve.......................................................... 82
3.30 The valve in practice..................................................... 83
3.31 Coated valves............................................................. 84
3.32 Corrosion and wear........................................................ 84
3.33 Valve rotation............................................................ 85
3.34 Seat inserts in cylinder heads............................................ 85
3.35 Layout of valves and form of combustion chamber........................... 86
3.36 Variable valve timing (VVT)............................................... 89
3.37 Advantages of VVT......................................................... 90
3.38 Early inlet valve closure (EIVC).......................................... 90
3.39 Problems associated with EIVC............................................. 91
3.40 Late inlet valve closure (LIVC)........................................... 91
3.41 Variable valve timing and the Atkinson cycle.............................. 92
3.42 Some simple VVT mechanisms................................................ 92
3.43 VPC, VLTC, VPLC and VET systems........................................... 92
3.44 The MechadyneÒMitchell system............................................. 95
3.45 Control of the Mechadyne–Mitchell system.................................. 98
3.46 Multi-valve heads......................................................... 99
3.47 Cylinder head Ò some overall design considerations........................ 101
3.48 An interesting cylinder head design....................................... 103
3.49 Cylinder block and crankcase arrangement.................................. 106
3.50 The aluminium crankcase................................................... 107
3.51 Camshaft drive............................................................ 110
4 Six-, eight- and twelve- cylinder engines........................................ 114
4.1 Six cylinders.............................................................. 114
4.2 Dynamic balance............................................................ 115
4.3 Firing order............................................................... 115
4.4 Eight cylinders............................................................ 115
4.5 Firing order............................................................... 116
4.6 Balanced webs and torsional oscillation.................................... 117
4.7 Difficulties met in design................................................. 118
4.8 Humber Super Snipe engine.................................................. 118
4.9 Jaguar AJ6 engine.......................................................... 122
4.10 Rover 2.3/2.6-litre E series engines...................................... 126
4.11 Ford V-six range.......................................................... 129
4.12 Mercedes M112 V6 engines.................................................. 130
4.13 The main castings of the Mercedes engine.................................. 133
4.14 Valves and combustion system.............................................. 135
4.15 Meeting future emissions regulations...................................... 136
4.16 Dual ignition and low fuel consumption.................................... 139
4.17 Inlet and exhaust manifolds............................................... 141
4.18 The ASSYST maintenance system............................................. 142
4.19 The V-eight............................................................... 142
4.20 Balance and firing intervals of V-eight................................... 143
4.21 Secondary balance with two-plane shaft.................................... 144
4.22 Construction of V-eight................................................... 144
4.23 A British V-eight engine.................................................. 145
4.24 Jaguar 5.3-litre V-twelve................................................. 148
4.25 Jaguar with May Fireball combustion chamber............................... 151
5 Sleeve- valve and special engines................................................ 154
5.1 Burt single-sleeve valve................................................... 154
5.2 Arrangement of ports....................................................... 155
5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of sleeve valves.............................. 156
5.4 Rotary valve............................................................... 156
5.5 Cross rotary-valve engine.................................................. 157
5.6 Aspin engine............................................................... 158
5.7 NSU Wankel rotary engine................................................... 158
6 Diesel injection equipment and systems........................................... 163
6.1 Ignition by the temperature of compression................................. 163
6.2 Air blast injection........................................................ 164
6.3 Mechanical injection....................................................... 165
6.4 Power : weight ratio....................................................... 166
6.5 Injection and combustion processes......................................... 166
6.6 Three phases of combustion................................................. 166
6.7 Delay period............................................................... 167
6.8 Second phase............................................................... 167
6.9 Final phase of combustion.................................................. 168
6.10 Types of combustion chamber............................................... 168
6.11 Direct injection.......................................................... 168
6.12 Pre-combustion chamber.................................................... 169
6.13 Controlled air swirl...................................................... 170
6.14 Comet swirl chamber....................................................... 170
6.15 Suarer dual-turbulence system............................................. 170
6.16 Evolution of the Perkins range of diesel engines.......................... 171
6.17 The Phaser combustion chamber............................................. 171
6.18 Injection equipment....................................................... 175
6.19 Pintle type nozzle........................................................ 177
6.20 Pintaux nozzle............................................................ 178
6.21 Hole type nozzles......................................................... 178
6.22 Injector assemblies....................................................... 180
6.23 Injectors for small diesel engines and two-stage injection................ 180
6.24 Stanadyne Pencil injector................................................. 182
6.25 Injection control......................................................... 184
6.26 Bosch snubber valve....................................................... 185
6.27 Types of injection pump................................................... 185
6.28 The Lucas CAV injection pumps............................................. 186
6.29 Details of the Minimec pump............................................... 186
6.30 Minimec pumping elements.................................................. 189
6.31 Starting from cold........................................................ 190
6.32 Governors................................................................. 192
6.33 Injection advance......................................................... 194
6.34 General principles of engine speed control................................ 194
6.35 Types of governor......................................................... 195
6.36 Types of governor mechanism............................................... 195
6.37 Torque control............................................................ 196
6.38 The mechanical governor fitted to the Minimec pump........................ 197
6.39 Bosch mechanically governed in-line pump.................................. 201
6.40 Bosch electronic controls for injection pumps............................. 202
6.41 Unit injection............................................................ 204
6.42 Lucas electronic unit injection (EUI) system.............................. 206
6.43 Penske/Detroit Diesel electronic unit injection........................... 209
6.44 The Cummins PT system..................................................... 210
6.45 The GM unit injection system.............................................. 216
6.46 Common rail injection systems............................................. 218
6.47 The Bosch system.......................................................... 219
6.48 Components of the Bosch system............................................ 220
6.49 Injectors................................................................. 221
6.50 Diesel fuel filtration in general......................................... 225
6.51 Filtration and system layouts............................................. 226
7 Distributor type pumps........................................................... 229
7.1 Lucas DP series distributor type pumps..................................... 229
7.2 Lucas DPA type pump........................................................ 229
7.3 DPA pump governor.......................................................... 233
7.4 Lucas DPS pump............................................................. 234
7.5 DPS fuel supply and distribution system.................................... 236
7.6 Engine starting............................................................ 238
7.7 Control of maximum fuel delivery........................................... 239
7.8 The two speed governor..................................................... 241
7.9 Scroll plates.............................................................. 242
7.10 Boost control............................................................. 243
7.11 Automatic advance and retard unit......................................... 243
7.12 Lucas DPC pump............................................................ 245
7.13 Excess fuel............................................................... 248
7.14 Injection timing advance and retard....................................... 248
7.15 Low load advance, external control........................................ 252
7.16 DPC boost controller...................................................... 255
7.17 Electronic control of distributor pumps................................... 257
7.18 The Lucas EPIC electronically controlled pump............................. 258
7.19 The electronic control system............................................. 259
7.20 The Bosch systems......................................................... 261
7.21 Governing the VE pump..................................................... 265
7.22 Torque control for the VE type pump....................................... 267
7.23 Boost pressure and altitude compensation modules.......................... 269
7.24 Load dependent injection timing........................................... 270
7.25 Cold start advance and stopping the engine................................ 271
7.26 Bosch VP44 radial plunger type pump....................................... 273
7.27 The incremental pressure stages........................................... 275
7.28 Control over injection quantity per shot.................................. 276
7.29 Fuel delivery and distribution............................................ 277
7.30 Control over injection quantity and timing................................ 278
7.31 The angular encoder....................................................... 279
7.32 Stanadyne rotary distributor pumps........................................ 281
7.33 Stanadyne DS electronically controlled pump............................... 285
8 Some representative diesel engines............................................... 288
8.1 Perkins P3 diesel engine................................................... 288
8.2 Perkins Prima DI engine.................................................... 290
8.3 Gardner LW................................................................. 293
8.4 Cummins 10-litre diesel.................................................... 296
8.5 Relative merits of spark ignition and ci engines........................... 300
9 The two- stroke engine........................................................... 303
9.1 Three-port two-stroke engine............................................... 304
9.2 Reverse-flow scavenge DKW engine........................................... 306
9.3 Special constructions of two-stroke engine................................. 307
9.4 Separate phased pump....................................................... 307
9.5 Trojan engine.............................................................. 308
9.6 Kadenacy system............................................................ 310
9.7 Loop scavenge, Schnuerle system............................................ 312
9.8 Exhaust pulse charging..................................................... 312
9.9 Uniflow scavenging: opposed-piston engines................................. 312
9.10 Compression-ignition two-stroke engine.................................... 312
9.11 GM diesel with rotary blower and poppet exhaust valves.................... 313
9.12 Foden six-cylinder two-stroke ci engine................................... 313
9.13 Blower and scavenging..................................................... 317
9.14 Crankshaft balance and firing order....................................... 317
9.15 GM two-stroke diesel...................................................... 318
9.16 Opposed-piston engine..................................................... 320
9.17 Comparison of advantages.................................................. 323
10 Fundamentals of carburation..................................................... 326
10.1 The basic requirements.................................................... 327
10.2 Requirements for metering and mixing...................................... 327
10.3 Mixture quality........................................................... 328
10.4 Induction of the mixture.................................................. 329
10.5 Volumetric efficiency..................................................... 330
10.6 Throttling................................................................ 331
10.7 Fuel and air metering..................................................... 333
10.8 Volume and mass flow...................................................... 334
10.9 Fixed- and variable-choke carburettors.................................... 335
10.10 The fixed-choke type..................................................... 335
10.11 Fuel : air ratio compensation for fixed-choke carburettors............... 337
10.12 Compensation by compound and submerged jets.............................. 338
10.13 Air bleed compensation................................................... 340
10.14 Multiple venturis intensify air bleed compensation....................... 342
10.15 The Zenith V-type emulsion block......................................... 343
10.16 Secondary suction effects................................................ 343
10.17 Mixture requirements in more detail...................................... 343
10.18 Principle of the intermediate chamber.................................... 345
10.19 Starting and idling enrichment devices................................... 346
10.20 Separate starting and warm-up enrichment devices......................... 347
10.21 Zenith VE starter carburettor............................................ 348
10.22 Thermostatic control for starting and warm-up............................ 349
10.23 Solex progressive starter................................................ 350
10.24 Idling systems and progression jets...................................... 352
10.25 Requirements for acceleration............................................ 353
10.26 Provision for acceleration............................................... 353
10.27 Mechanically actuated acceleration pumps................................. 354
10.28 Depression actuated acceleration pumps................................... 355
10.29 Enrichment for maximum power............................................. 356
10.30 Static power enrichment.................................................. 357
10.31 Economiser devices....................................................... 361
11 Some representative carburettors................................................ 362
11.1 Venturi diameter.......................................................... 362
11.2 Zenith W type carburettors................................................ 363
11.3 Zenith IZ Carburettors.................................................... 365
11.4 Zenith IV carburettors.................................................... 367
11.5 Adaptation for emission control........................................... 368
11.6 Multi-barrel carburettors................................................. 370
11.7 A three-stage throttle mechanism.......................................... 372
11.8 Solex MIMAT carburettor................................................... 373
11.9 An electronically controlled four-barrel carburettor...................... 380
11.10 Constant-depression carburettors......................................... 389
11.11 SU constant-depression carburettor....................................... 391
11.12 SU carburettor type HIF.................................................. 392
11.13 Zenith-Stromberg CD and CDS carburettors................................. 394
11.14 Zenith-Stromberg CDSE emission carburettor............................... 395
11.15 Zenith-Stromberg CD4 and CD5 carburettors................................ 396
11.16 Mixture ratio curves..................................................... 398
11.17 Automatic governor....................................................... 399
12 Petrol injection systems........................................................ 401
12.1 Basic considerations...................................................... 402
12.2 Injection system types and layouts........................................ 403
12.3 Injection strategies...................................................... 404
12.4 Injector design........................................................... 405
12.5 Some other injectors...................................................... 408
12.6 Start valves.............................................................. 410
12.7 Air-flow metering......................................................... 410
12.8 Suspended-plate-type flow sensor.......................................... 411
12.9 Swinging-gate-type air flow sensor........................................ 413
12.10 Mass-flow sensors........................................................ 414
12.11 Lambda sensor............................................................ 415
12.12 Bosch K-Jetronic system.................................................. 418
12.13 The fuel distributor..................................................... 420
12.14 Bosch KE-Jetronic system................................................. 421
12.15 Bosch L-Jetronic system.................................................. 423
12.16 Bosch LH-Jetronic system................................................. 426
12.17 Bosch Motronic system.................................................... 427
12.18 The electronic ignition control.......................................... 427
12.19 Fuel supply.............................................................. 429
12.20 Overall principle of operation........................................... 430
12.21 Other variables.......................................................... 431
12.22 The Weber electronic control system...................................... 435
12.23 Bosch Mono-Jetronic system............................................... 435
12.24 The GM Multec single-point system........................................ 437
12.25 The Multec multi-point system............................................ 439
12.26 Rover throttle body injection and ignition control....................... 440
12.27 Ignition control......................................................... 443
12.28 The air-intake system.................................................... 444
12.29 Throttle body assembly................................................... 446
12.30 Stepper motor operation.................................................. 446
12.31 Fuel metering............................................................ 447
12.32 The Mechadyne Pijet 90 system............................................ 448
12.33 Principle of operation................................................... 449
12.34 Idling and the electronic control unit................................... 452
12.35 Comment.................................................................. 453
13 Induction manifold design....................................................... 456
13.1 Mixture distribution and manifold pressure................................ 457
13.2 Mixture transport problems................................................ 459
13.3 Manifold heating.......................................................... 460
13.4 Materials................................................................. 463
13.5 Manifold tuning........................................................... 464
13.6 Valve timing and inter-cylinder charge robbery............................ 464
13.7 Crankshaft and cylinder layout in relation to valve timing................ 465
13.8 Three-cylinder engines.................................................... 466
13.9 Four-cylinder in-line engines............................................. 466
13.10 Six and eight cylinders in-line.......................................... 469
13.11 V-layouts................................................................ 470
13.12 Pipe tuning - the inertia wave........................................... 473
13.13 Tuning the pipe to optimise the inertia wave effect...................... 474
13.14 Resonant, or standing, waves............................................. 475
13.15 Pipe end-effects......................................................... 478
13.16 Frequencies, wavelengths and lengths of pipes............................ 478
13.17 Tuning the pipe to optimise standing-wave effects........................ 481
13.18 Harmonics of standing waves.............................................. 481
13.19 Some practical applications of pipe tuning............................... 482
13.20 The Helmholtz resonator.................................................. 485
13.21 Helmholtz resonators in automotive practice.............................. 488
13.22 Alternative Helmholtz arrangements....................................... 489
13.23 Examples of the application of the Helmholtz principle................... 489
13.24 Application to Vengines.................................................. 490
13.25 The Helmholtz resonator in combination with tuned pipes.................. 492
14 Emission control................................................................ 493
14.1 Early measures for controlling emissions.................................. 494
14.2 Evolution of the US Federal test procedures............................... 495
14.3 Catalytic conversion...................................................... 497
14.4 Two-way catalytic conversion.............................................. 497
14.5 The converter............................................................. 498
14.6 Catalyst support.......................................................... 498
14.7 Metallic monoliths for catalytic converters............................... 499
14.8 Ford EGI system for preheating catalysts.................................. 501
14.9 Three-way conversion...................................................... 502
14.10 The electronic control system............................................ 503
14.11 Warm-air intake systems.................................................. 503
14.12 Evaporative emissions.................................................... 504
14.13 Crankcase emission control............................................... 505
14.14 Air injection and gulp valve............................................. 506
14.15 Air management valves.................................................... 507
14.16 Some more complex valve arrangements..................................... 508
14.17 Vapour collection and canister purge systems............................. 510
14.18 Diesel engine emissions.................................................. 515
14.19 Reduction of emissions: conflicting requirements......................... 515
14.20 Oxides of nitrogen, NOx.................................................. 516
14.21 Unburnt hydrocarbons..................................................... 519
14.22 Carbon monoxide.......................................................... 520
14.23 Particulates............................................................. 520
14.24 Particle traps........................................................... 522
14.25 Influence of fuel quality on diesel exhaust emissions.................... 524
14.26 Black smoke.............................................................. 524
14.27 White smoke.............................................................. 525
15 Fuel pumps and engine intake air conditioning................................... 526
15.1 Roller-cell positive displacement type pump............................... 526
15.2 Mechanical diaphragm type pump............................................ 527
15.3 SU pump................................................................... 529
15.4 Rotary electric fuel pumps................................................ 530
15.5 Air filters and silencers................................................. 531
16 Turbocharging and supercharging................................................. 533
16.1 Pressure charging the spark ignition engine............................... 533
16.2 Carburetted engines....................................................... 534
16.3 The diesel engine......................................................... 535
16.4 The two-stroke engine..................................................... 535
16.5 Turbocharging in general.................................................. 536
16.6 Automotive turbocharger construction...................................... 536
16.7 Operating range and characteristics....................................... 537
16.8 Compressor surge and stall................................................ 540
16.9 Axial or radial flow?..................................................... 541
16.10 The two methods of turbocharging......................................... 541
16.11 Constant-pressure turbocharging.......................................... 541
16.12 Pulse turbocharging...................................................... 542
16.13 Exhaust manifold layouts for turbocharging............................... 542
16.14 Pulse converters......................................................... 545
16.15 Matching the turbocharger to the engine.................................. 546
16.16 Extending turbocharger speed range....................................... 548
16.17 Variable geometry........................................................ 549
16.18 By-passing the gas flow.................................................. 552
16.19 Cooling the charge....................................................... 553
16.20 The heat exchanger....................................................... 554
16.21 Supercharging............................................................ 555
16.22 Two main categories of supercharger...................................... 558
16.23 Vane type with tip clearance............................................. 560
16.24 Advantages of blowing.................................................... 560
16.25 Screw-type compressors................................................... 561
16.26 Other methods of supercharging........................................... 563
16.27 The pressure-wave supercharger........................................... 565
17 Fuels and their combustion...................................................... 567
17.1 Distillation and blending................................................. 569
17.2 The principal refining processes.......................................... 571
17.3 Properties required for petrol............................................ 572
17.4 Fuel-performance requirements............................................. 573
17.5 Octane number and anti-knock index........................................ 574
17.6 Boiling point, vapour lock and ice formation in induction systems......... 574
17.7 Composition of fuel for spark ignition engines............................ 575
17.8 Additives................................................................. 576
17.9 Lead compounds............................................................ 577
17.10 Lead-free fuels.......................................................... 577
17.11 Detergent additives...................................................... 578
17.12 Corrosion inhibitors..................................................... 578
17.13 Spark-aider additives.................................................... 579
17.14 Diesel fuels............................................................. 579
17.15 Properties required for diesel fuel...................................... 580
17.16 Cetane number, cetane index and diesel index............................. 581
17.17 Tendency to deposit wax.................................................. 583
17.18 Density.................................................................. 583
17.19 Volatility............................................................... 584
17.20 Viscosity................................................................ 584
17.21 Smoke.................................................................... 584
17.22 Particulates............................................................. 586
17.23 Additives................................................................ 586
17.24 The effects of additives on combustion and performance................... 587
17.25 Cetane number and cetane improvers....................................... 588
17.26 Cold weather problems.................................................... 589
17.27 Cold weather additives................................................... 589
17.28 Dispersants and corrosion inhibitors..................................... 590
17.29 Detergents and anti-corrosion additives.................................. 590
17.30 Anti-foamants and re-odorants............................................ 592
17.31 Diesel combustion........................................................ 593
17.32 Ignition delay........................................................... 593
18 Friction, lubricants and lubrication............................................ 596
18.1 Dry friction.............................................................. 596
18.2 Boundary friction......................................................... 596
18.3 Viscous friction.......................................................... 597
18.4 Measurement of viscosity.................................................. 598
18.5 Change of viscosity with temperature - viscosity index.................... 598
18.6 Types of oil.............................................................. 600
18.7 Synthetic lubricants...................................................... 600
18.8 Semi-synthetic lubricants................................................. 602
18.9 The wear process and lubrication.......................................... 602
18.10 Corrosive wear........................................................... 603
18.11 The lubricant as a coolant............................................... 604
18.12 Oil additives............................................................ 604
18.13 Lubrication systems...................................................... 608
18.14 Pressure lubrication..................................................... 609
18.15 Dry sump lubrication..................................................... 611
18.16 Lubrication of bearings carrying shafts.................................. 611
18.17 Hydrodynamic lubrication................................................. 611
18.18 Gear-type oil pump....................................................... 612
18.19 Eccentric-rotor pump..................................................... 613
18.20 Oil filters.............................................................. 614
18.21 Oil circulation and pressure indicators.................................. 615
18.22 Oil level indication..................................................... 617
19 Engine cooling.................................................................. 618
19.1 Temperature control....................................................... 621
19.2 Wax-element thermostats................................................... 622
19.3 Pressurised cooling system................................................ 623
19.4 Twin thermostats.......................................................... 624
19.5 Renault R4-L sealed coolant system........................................ 625
19.6 Directed cooling.......................................................... 625
19.7 Radiator construction..................................................... 626
19.8 Horizontal disposition of copper tubes.................................... 629
19.9 Fan drives................................................................ 629
20 Electric propulsion............................................................. 632
20.1 Batteries................................................................. 632
20.2 The battery electric vehicles............................................. 633
20.3 Fuel cells................................................................ 634
20.4 The fuel cell: basic principles........................................... 635
20.5 Low pressure hydrogen storage on the vehicle.............................. 636
20.6 Fuel cells in buses, US and Canada........................................ 637
20.7 Zevco fuel cell for cars, Europe.......................................... 639
20.8 Cryogenic storage of hydrogen, Renault.................................... 640
20.9 Hydrogen from methanol or DME............................................. 640
20.10 Hybrid power............................................................. 642
20.11 Toyota Prius hybrid car.................................................. 644
21 Alternative power units......................................................... 646
21.1 The gas turbine........................................................... 646
21.2 Essential processes in ic power units..................................... 648
21.3 Essential components in turbine unit...................................... 648
21.4 Gas turbines for road transport........................................... 649
21.5 Essential characteristics of turbine prime movers......................... 649
21.6 Automotive power unit..................................................... 650
21.7 Fuel consumption.......................................................... 651
21.8 Heat exchangers........................................................... 651
21.9 Turbine developments...................................................... 652
21.10 Ford power unit.......................................................... 653
21.11 Chrysler turbine car..................................................... 654
21.12 Leyland gas turbine...................................................... 656
21.13 Gas turbine prospects.................................................... 657
21.14 Stratified-charge engines................................................ 657
21.15 Single-chamber versions.................................................. 658
21.16 Dual-chamber versions.................................................... 660
21.17 The Merritt engine....................................................... 663
21.18 How NOx emission is avoided.............................................. 663
21.19 Results obtained on the test bed......................................... 665
21.20 The fully developed ignition system...................................... 666
21.21 The outlook.............................................................. 667
21.22 Stirling engine.......................................................... 668
22 Bearings, gearing, chain and belt drives........................................ 675
22.1 Types of toothed gearing.................................................. 677
22.2 Gear ratio of toothed gearing............................................. 681
22.3 Chain drive............................................................... 681
22.4 Belt drives............................................................... 682
Part 2 Transmission.................................................................... 684
23 Transmission requirements....................................................... 685
23.1 Clutch, gearbox and live axle transmission - general arrangement.......... 687
23.2 Layout of rear-engine vehicles with live axles............................ 689
23.3 Dead-axle and axleless transmission arrangements.......................... 690
23.4 Four-wheel-drive transmission............................................. 694
24 Clutches........................................................................ 696
24.1 Basic principle of the friction-type clutch............................... 696
24.2 Torque transmitted........................................................ 697
24.3 Cone clutch............................................................... 698
24.4 Torque capacity of a cone clutch.......................................... 699
24.5 Clutch linings............................................................ 700
24.6 Friction materials........................................................ 700
24.7 Bonding agents for fibres................................................. 701
24.8 Single-plate clutch....................................................... 702
24.9 Torque transmitted........................................................ 703
24.10 Multi-spring single-plate clutch......................................... 704
24.11 The diaphragm-spring clutch.............................................. 706
24.12 Pull-type diaphragm-spring clutch........................................ 710
24.13 Belleville direct-release clutch......................................... 710
24.14 Driven plate............................................................. 712
24.15 Multiple-plate clutch.................................................... 713
24.16 Dry multiple-plate clutch................................................ 714
24.17 Clutch release gear...................................................... 714
24.18 Clutch brakes or stops................................................... 715
24.19 Automatic clutch action.................................................. 715
24.20 Centrifugal clutches..................................................... 715
24.21 Eddy current couplings................................................... 717
24.22 The Ferlec electro-magnetic clutch....................................... 718
24.23 Fluid flywheel........................................................... 719
24.24 Prevention of leakage.................................................... 721
24.25 Characteristic of the fluid flywheel..................................... 721
24.26 ÎOpen circuitÌ fluid coupling............................................ 722
24.27 Fluid-friction clutch.................................................... 723
24.28 Connection between the clutch and gearbox................................ 724
25 Why is a gearbox necessary?..................................................... 726
25.1 Aerodynamic forces........................................................ 726
25.2 Gradient resistance....................................................... 727
25.3 Rolling resistance........................................................ 727
25.4 Total resistance.......................................................... 728
25.5 Tractive effort........................................................... 728
25.6 Variation of the tractive effort with speed............................... 730
25.7 Performance curves........................................................ 731
25.8 Clutch action............................................................. 732
25.9 Constant power TE speed curve............................................. 733
25.10 Performance curves on a horsepower basis................................. 733
26 Constructional arrangements of gearboxes........................................ 736
26.1 Sliding-mesh gearbox...................................................... 736
26.2 First or low gear......................................................... 738
26.3 Second gear............................................................... 739
26.4 Third gear................................................................ 739
26.5 Fourth or top gear........................................................ 739
26.6 Reverse gear.............................................................. 739
26.7 Control mechanism......................................................... 741
26.8 Sliding-type selector mechanism........................................... 741
26.9 Ball-type selector mechanism.............................................. 741
26.10 Steering column gear shift control....................................... 744
26.11 Constant-mesh gearbox.................................................... 745
26.12 A five-speed gearbox..................................................... 746
26.13 Another example of a constant-mesh gearbox............................... 748
26.14 BL cars overdrive, five-ratio gearbox.................................... 749
26.15 Synchromesh devices...................................................... 751
26.16 Baulk type of synchromesh................................................ 753
26.17 Baulk-ring synchromesh................................................... 754
26.18 Multi- and double-cone synchronisers..................................... 755
26.19 Porsche synchromesh...................................................... 756
26.20 Lubrication of the gearbox............................................... 757
26.21 Freewheel devices........................................................ 758
26.22 Auxiliary gearboxes and overdrives....................................... 759
26.23 A Leyland ten-ratio gearbox.............................................. 760
26.24 The Fuller twin-countershaft gearbox..................................... 761
26.25 An all-indirect gearbox.................................................. 763
26.26 Multi-speed splitter gearbox............................................. 763
26.27 Operation................................................................ 764
26.28 Clutchless changes....................................................... 764
26.29 An upshift brake......................................................... 766
26.30 Additional features...................................................... 767
27 Epicyclic and pre- selector gearboxes........................................... 768
27.1 A simple epicyclic gear train............................................. 769
27.2 An alternative epicyclic gear train....................................... 770
27.3 Epicyclic gear ratios..................................................... 771
27.4 Simple planetary epicyclic gearing........................................ 772
27.5 Simple planet epicyclic gearing in general................................ 773
27.6 Compound planet epicyclic gearing......................................... 773
27.7 Numbers of teeth.......................................................... 774
27.8 Another way of applying epicyclic gearing................................. 775
27.9 Epicyclic gearboxes....................................................... 775
27.10 Basic principle of the Wilson gearbox.................................... 776
27.11 The auxiliary trains in the Wilson gearbox............................... 778
27.12 The clutches and brakes in the Wilson gearbox............................ 779
27.13 Automatic compensation for wear.......................................... 780
28 Torque converters and automatic gearboxes....................................... 782
28.1 Torque converter with direct drive........................................ 785
28.2 Turbo-Transmitters converter.............................................. 786
28.3 Other arrangements of torque converters................................... 787
28.4 Chevrolet Turboglide transmission......................................... 789
28.5 Torque converter performance.............................................. 790
28.6 Automatic transmission in general......................................... 792
28.7 Borg-Warner Models 35, 65 and 66 transmissions............................ 793
28.8 Alfa Romeo Q-System....................................................... 794
28.9 Porsche automatic transmission for sports cars............................ 795
28.10 Porsche Tiptronic electronic control system.............................. 796
28.11 Borg-Warner Models 45 and 55 transmissions............................... 799
28.12 Hydramatic transmissions................................................. 802
28.13 Hydramatic Strato-flight gearbox controls................................ 806
28.14 Automatic transmissions for commercial vehicles.......................... 812
28.15 Voith Diwamatic transmission............................................. 813
28.16 ZF HP500 fully automatic transmission.................................... 814
29 Semi- automatic gearboxes and continuously variable transmissions............... 817
29.1 AP semi-automatic gearbox................................................. 817
29.2 AP hot-shift automatic gearbox............................................ 820
29.3 Ricardo ALT automatic transmission........................................ 822
29.4 Alfa Romeo Selespeed transmission......................................... 824
29.5 Van Doorne Variomatic and Transmatic transmissions........................ 827
29.6 Van Doorne Transmissive BV steel CVT...................................... 831
29.7 The Maxwell automatic transmission........................................ 832
29.8 Leyland continuously variable transmission................................ 833
30 Universal joints and driving steered wheels..................................... 840
30.1 Constructional forms of universal joints.................................. 840
30.2 Flexible-ring joints...................................................... 842
30.3 Rubber-bushed flexible joints............................................. 843
30.4 Constant-velocity joints.................................................. 844
30.5 Driving and braking of steered wheels..................................... 847
31 The differential................................................................ 852
31.1 Another arrangement of the bevel final drive.............................. 854
31.2 Spur, or planetary type, differential..................................... 854
31.3 Traction control differentials............................................ 855
31.4 Vehicle design implications of traction control........................... 857
31.5 Multi-plate clutch-type traction control device........................... 858
31.6 Some other clutch types................................................... 859
31.7 Gear type traction control devices........................................ 860
31.8 ZF limited slip differential.............................................. 862
31.9 Multi-plate clutch type................................................... 863
31.10 The traction control by viscous coupling................................. 865
32 The back axle................................................................... 868
32.1 Live back axles........................................................... 868
32.2 The final drive........................................................... 868
32.3 Single-reduction live axles............................................... 869
32.4 Torque reaction........................................................... 870
32.5 Driving thrust............................................................ 870
32.6 Torque and thrust member arrangements..................................... 870
32.7 Springs serving also as torque and thrust members......................... 871
32.8 Hotchkiss drive with torque reaction member............................... 872
32.9 Single combined torque-thrust reaction member, with....................... 873
springs taking only vertical and lateral loads................................. 873
32.10 Transverse radius rods................................................... 874
32.11 Three radius rods........................................................ 874
33 Axle constructions.............................................................. 876
33.1 Effects of wheel-bearing layout on axle loading........................... 878
33.2 Some actual bearing arrangements.......................................... 879
33.3 Axle casing constructions................................................. 881
34 The double- reduction axle...................................................... 883
34.1 Both steps at the centre of the axle...................................... 883
34.2 Kirkstall double-reduction axle........................................... 885
34.3 One step at centre of axle, the other at road wheels...................... 887
34.4 A bevel-gear hub reduction................................................ 888
Part 3 The Carriage Unit............................................................... 889
35 The basic structure............................................................. 890
35.1 The frame................................................................. 890
35.2 Sub-frames................................................................ 895
35.3 Integral and chassisless construction..................................... 897
36 Vehicle safety.................................................................. 899
36.1 Crash testing............................................................. 900
36.2 Protection of occupants................................................... 906
36.3 Testing for occupant safety............................................... 907
36.4 Protection of pedestrians from serious injury............................. 909
36.5 Active safety............................................................. 910
36.6 Structural safety and air bags............................................ 912
36.7 Passenger compartment integrity........................................... 914
36.8 The problem of the small car.............................................. 916
36.9 Side impacts.............................................................. 918
36.10 Smart air bags........................................................... 918
36.11 Seat belts............................................................... 919
36.12 Improvement of active safety............................................. 921
36.13 Tyres, suspension and steering........................................... 922
36.14 Electronic control systems in general.................................... 923
36.15 Electric power assisted steering......................................... 923
36.16 Brakes................................................................... 924
36.17 Automatic braking and traction control................................... 924
36.18 Recently introduced advanced systems..................................... 925
36.19 Suspension control....................................................... 925
36.20 Ergonomic considerations and safety...................................... 926
36.21 Seating.................................................................. 927
36.22 The pedal controls....................................................... 929
37 Brakes.......................................................................... 931
37.1 Two functions of brakes................................................... 933
37.2 Braking systems........................................................... 933
37.3 Methods of actuating the brakes........................................... 934
37.4 Types of brake............................................................ 934
37.5 Elementary theory of the shoe brake....................................... 937
37.6 Brake shoe adjustments.................................................... 939
37.7 A modern rear-wheel brake................................................. 940
37.8 Disc brakes............................................................... 944
37.9 Self-energising disc brakes............................................... 948
37.10 Brake linkages........................................................... 949
37.11 Leverage and adjustment of the brake linkage............................. 951
37.12 Hydraulic systems........................................................ 952
37.13 Operating cylinders...................................................... 953
37.14 Divided and dual brake systems........................................... 954
38 Servo- and power- operated, and regenerative braking systems.................... 958
38.1 Vacuum brake operation.................................................... 959
38.2 Clayton Dewandre master servo unit........................................ 959
38.3 Reservoirs................................................................ 961
38.4 Bendix Hydrovac........................................................... 962
38.5 Direct-acting vacuum servos............................................... 962
38.6 Power-operated brakes..................................................... 963
38.7 A dual power brake system................................................. 965
38.8 Compressed air systems.................................................... 967
38.9 Actuating cylinders for air brakes........................................ 970
38.10 Spring brake units and locks............................................. 970
38.11 Brake limiting device and anti-slide systems............................. 972
38.12 The load-conscious valve................................................. 974
38.13 Apportioning valves for front-wheel sensed anti-lock systems............. 975
38.14 Apportioning valves for heavy commercial vehicles........................ 978
38.15 Mercedes-Benz 4MATIC traction control for 4-wheel drive.................. 980
38.16 Mercedes-Benz Brake Assist (BA).......................................... 983
38.17 Stability when steering and braking or accelerating (ESP)................ 985
38.18 Regenerative braking systems............................................. 986
39 Anti- lock brakes and traction control.......................................... 990
39.1 Dunlop-Maxaret system..................................................... 991
39.2 Lucas-Girling WSP system.................................................. 992
39.3 Ford Escort and Orion anti-lock systems................................... 993
39.4 Ford Granada, Sierra and Scorpio anti-lock systems........................ 995
39.5 Traction control.......................................................... 998
39.6 Teves Mk IV ABS and traction control......................................1000
39.7 Advanced anti-lock braking systems........................................1002
39.8 Braking force coefficient and slip factor.................................1003
39.9 Bosch anti-lock (ABS) systems.............................................1004
39.10 How the system functions.................................................1006
39.11 The reference speeds.....................................................1007
39.12 Wheels on one side on ice and on the other on tarmac.....................1009
39.13 ABS for cars with 4-wheel drive..........................................1010
39.14 Traction control in general..............................................1011
39.15 Bosch ASR2-DKB traction control system...................................1012
39.16 Bosch ASR2-DKZ/MSR system................................................1013
39.17 Lucas-Girling Skidchek GX................................................1014
40 Front axle and steering mechanism...............................................1018
40.1 Ackerman linkage..........................................................1019
40.2 Multi-wheel vehicles......................................................1020
40.3 Steering linkages for independent suspension..............................1021
40.4 Centre-point steering.....................................................1022
40.5 Castoring or trailing action..............................................1024
40.6 Cornering power...........................................................1025
40.7 Limiting grip on road while braking and steering..........................1025
40.8 Self-righting torque......................................................1026
40.9 Steering characteristics - oversteer and understeer.......................1026
40.10 Rear wheel steering......................................................1027
40.11 The underlying principles................................................1028
40.12 The Nissan Super HICAS system............................................1030
40.13 Components of the HICAS system...........................................1033
40.14 Axle beam................................................................1035
40.15 Stub-axle construction...................................................1036
40.16 Wheel bearings...........................................................1037
40.17 Steering column..........................................................1040
40.18 Reversible and irreversible steering.....................................1040
40.19 Rack-and-pinion steering mechanism.......................................1041
40.20 Screw-and-nut mechanism..................................................1041
40.21 Cam steering mechanisms..................................................1043
40.22 Screw-and-lever mechanism................................................1043
40.23 Steering connections.....................................................1044
40.24 Alignment of the front wheels............................................1045
40.25 Effect of toe-in on steering.............................................1045
40.26 Power assisted steering, basic principles................................1046
40.27 Vickers system...........................................................1047
40.28 Ross system..............................................................1048
40.29 Marles-Bendix Varamatic system...........................................1050
40.30 Electrically powered systems.............................................1052
40.31 TRW systems..............................................................1052
40.32 TRW rack drive system....................................................1053
40.33 The column and pinion drive variants.....................................1054
40.34 ZF Servolectric system...................................................1056
40.35 Honda EPS and VGR systems................................................1058
41 Wheels and tyres................................................................1060
41.1 Wheel and tyre assemblies.................................................1063
41.2 Wheels....................................................................1063
41.3 Rims......................................................................1065
41.4 Wheel fixing..............................................................1070
41.5 Light alloy wheels........................................................1071
41.6 Tyres.....................................................................1071
41.7 Tyre construction.........................................................1073
41.8 Tread design..............................................................1075
41.9 Off-road vehicle tyres....................................................1076
41.10 Noise....................................................................1076
41.11 Aspect ratio and tyre markings...........................................1076
41.12 Tyre design considerations...............................................1078
41.13 Run-flat tyres...........................................................1079
41.14 Materials................................................................1080
41.15 Manufacture..............................................................1081
41.16 Retreading worn tyres....................................................1082
42 Suspension principles...........................................................1084
42.1 Road irregularities and human susceptibility..............................1084
42.2 Suspension system.........................................................1085
42.3 Damping...................................................................1087
42.4 Dampers in practice.......................................................1088
42.5 Double-tube damper........................................................1089
42.6 Single-tube damper........................................................1090
42.7 Lever-arm-type damper.....................................................1091
42.8 Springs...................................................................1091
42.9 Types of leaf spring......................................................1092
42.10 Laminated spring details.................................................1093
42.11 Taper-leaf springs.......................................................1096
42.12 Steering effects of leaf springs.........................................1098
42.13 Coil and torsion springs.................................................1100
42.14 Variable-rate springs....................................................1100
42.15 Composite leaf springs...................................................1101
42.16 Rubber springs...........................................................1102
42.17 Air springs..............................................................1106
42.18 Adjustable and self-adjusting suspensions................................1107
42.19 Interconnected suspension systems........................................1110
42.20 Interconnected air and liquid suspensions................................1111
42.21 BL Hydrolastic suspenion systems.........................................1112
42.22 Moulton Hydragas suspension..............................................1113
42.23 Austin Mini Metro Suspension.............................................1115
42.24 Chassis lubrication......................................................1116
42.25 Some autolubrication systems.............................................1117
43 Suspension systems..............................................................1119
43.1 Camber angle..............................................................1120
43.2 Roll centre...............................................................1120
43.3 Double transverse-link suspension.........................................1123
43.4 MacPherson strut type.....................................................1127
43.5 Single transverse link....................................................1128
43.6 Single leading or trailing link...........................................1129
43.7 Double leading or trailing link...........................................1130
43.8 Broulhiet suspension......................................................1131
43.9 Girling suspension........................................................1131
43.10 Dubonnet suspension......................................................1132
43.11 Slider, or pillar, type..................................................1133
43.12 Rover 2000 front suspension..............................................1134
43.13 Driven-wheel suspension..................................................1135
43.14 Rear suspension - live axle..............................................1135
43.15 Torque reaction and axle guidance........................................1136
43.16 WattÌs linkage...........................................................1137
43.17 Rear suspension - dead axles.............................................1137
43.18 Rear suspension - independent............................................1139
43.19 Single link with angled pivot axis.......................................1140
43.20 Influence of angle of pivot axis on camber and toe-in....................1143
43.21 Vehicle handling considerations..........................................1143
43.22 MacPherson strut rear suspension.........................................1144
43.23 Active suspension........................................................1145
43.24 Suspension control systems...............................................1147
44 Six- wheel vehicles.............................................................1152
44.1 The rigid six-wheeler.....................................................1153
44.2 Suspensions for rigid six-wheelers........................................1153
44.3 Transmissions of six-wheelers.............................................1155
44.4 A Scammell design.........................................................1157
44.5 Torque reaction in rigid six-wheelers.....................................1158
44.6 Spring stresses in rigid six-wheelers.....................................1161
44.7 Scammell articulated trailer..............................................1162
44.8 Scammell Routeman.........................................................1163
Index..................................................................................1165
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